Second language acquisition theories
Theories of second language acquisition enables us to develop a deeper understanding of how children learn a second language. Considering these theories and our personal experiences as both learners and teachers helps us to critically examine our practice in order to determine the types of tasks and activities that suit the needs of our L2 learners.
BICS/CALP
Cummins (as cited in Baker, 2011) makes a distinction between the acquisition of social language and academic language. BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills) are classified, as the communicative skills of listening and speaking that are needed in social situations. The interactions occur in authentic social contexts and are usually context embedded, meaning they include many physical and visual supports to support the communicative exchange. BICS are not considered as demanding cognitive tasks and the language required is not specialized. These skills develop quickly in second language learners (one to two years). CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency) refers to the students’ academic learning in the various subject areas. This level of language learning is essential for students to succeed in school. It includes the oral and written production skills of speaking and writing and the oral and written comprehension skills of listening and reading in content areas. As a student gets older the context of academic tasks is reduced and the language is more cognitively demanding, meaning that there are fewer clues or supports to help students comprehend content information. This academic proficiency takes a much longer time to develop in second language learners (generally five to eight years). For more information on BICS/CALP please visit Jim Cummins website: http://iteachilearn.org/cummins/bicscalp.html |
Common Underlying Proficiency Model
The Common Underlying Proficiency model (Cummins, 1980a, 1981a, as cited in Baker, 2011) has frequently been described as the two icebergs model and has been represented by the graphic shown below. The main idea behind this theory is that when students learn one language, they acquire a bank of skills and implicit metalinguistic knowledge that they can draw upon when they learn subsequent languages. This Common Underlying Proficiency provides the base language support for both the first language of the student and the second language as well. Anything that is learned in either language would then become part of this bank to be drawn upon when needed across languages. This theory has also been used to explain why it becomes easier to learn a third or fourth language. |
Thresholds Theory
Cummins' Thresholds Theory (Baker, 2011) has significant implications for immersion programs, as biliteracy is an important goal; we want our students to be literate in both language and benefit from being balanced bilinguals. The theory essentially has two thresholds. The first threshold is a minimum for children to reach in order to avoid the negative effects of bilingualism. Below this level is when children have a limited competency in both languages. Between the two thresholds, children are competent in one language; but are not yet able to transfer skills between the two languages. However, it is also important to note that “The more developed the first language, the easier it will be to develop the second language.” (Baker, 2011, p. 169). Conversely, the lower the competency level in the first language, the harder it is to achieve bilingualism (Baker, 2011). A strong first language can support the development of a second language. Above the second threshold, allows for the possibility of positive cognitive effects that correspond to the age-appropriate levels of competency in both languages. The extent to which French is learned determines the effect that bilingualism will have on the student. |
The Communicative Proficiency Model (4 Quadrant Model)
The communicative proficiency model, as described by Baker (2011, p.173), focuses attention on the level of linguistic and contextual challenges in classroom activities. It is useful as it reminds us that cognitive challenge can be kept high for students learning a second language when the activities are rooted in a supportive context and appropriate scaffolding is provided. The first quadrant is very concrete and involves the everyday communication in the classroom. It is typically seen during regular routines such as greetings, calendar and weather, sharing about recess or the weekend, etc. In this stage of the framework, there would be a lot of oral language, visual supports and the use of the L1 to support the L2. In the second quadrant, language tasks are context reduced (less oral and visual supports) but within students’ abilities because the tasks are cognitively undemanding. In the third quadrant, learning tasks are scaffolded through visual and personal supports such as the image itself, graphic organizers, personal dictionaries, collaboration, conferences with the teacher, etc. Finally in the fourth quadrant, the context is reduced and the task cognitively demanding. Tasks in this quadrant would have students using what they know and have learned to argue, evaluate, analyze and make judgments. |
It is a powerful tool in our ‘teacher’s toolbox’ to be able to shift a task/discussion from cognitively undemanding to cognitively demanding through the simple rephrasing of a question or task.
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Click here to view examples of how this model could be used in planning lessons that progress through the quadrants.